Decoding lithium production: Lithium extraction

April 25, 2025

The global race for lithium has spurred significant technological innovation in extraction methods. As demand continues to surge, understanding these diverse approaches becomes crucial for evaluating the industry's future trajectory and sustainability prospects.

Hard rock mining


Traditional hard rock mining, currently dominating global production, extracts lithium from pegmatite ores like spodumene. This method proves highly efficient in regions with high-grade lithium ore deposits, which usually contain lithium oxide concentrations of 1 to 2%, while a typical spodumene concentrate can contain up to 7% lithium oxide[1]. However, it carries substantial environmental and economic costs. Lithium-rich hard rock mining requires extensive land disturbance and consumes significant energy during both extraction and processing phases through crushing, heating and refining. The processing phase produces large volumes of tailings and waste materials, which can lead to soil and water contamination if improperly managed. Despite these challenges, lithium hard rock mining supply chain is relatively adaptable to the demand and reliable as often located in stable mining jurisdictions such as Australia. 

Image 1 - Hard rock mining production - While reliable and currently dominant, hard rock mining carries substantial environmental costs with high CO2 emissions, significant water usage, and extensive land disturbance despite its established supply chain. (Click or tap the image to view in full screen)

Brine-based extraction


Brine-based extraction presents an alternative approach, with two distinct processing methodologies shaping the industry landscape:

  1. Continental saline basins, or salars, represent the most widely exploited sources today. These deposits, formed through natural evaporation in basins like South America's Salar de Atacama, have established themselves as cornerstone suppliers to global markets. Economic lithium-rich brines typically contain concentrations between 200 to 4,000 mg/L of lithium[2][3], while evaporation-based processing is relatively time-intensive, taking between 9 to 18 months to complete[4][5]. This method requires substantial land and water resources, as large evaporation ponds are filled using local water supplies, potentially leading to salinity changes and aquifer depletion. The lithium supply chain from evaporation ponds is relatively slow and can be heavily influenced by geopolitical factors, given the scarce distribution of these resources, primarily within the Lithium Triangle in South America.[6]
Image 2 - Conventional brine processing - This time-intensive method (9-18 months) extracts lithium through solar evaporation in South America's salt flats, requiring extensive land use and water resources with lower recovery rates (30-40%). (Click or tap the image to view in full screen)
  1. Lithium-rich subsurface brines from deep aquifers and hydrothermal systems hold great promise for lithium production, thanks to their lower environmental impact and enhanced recovery rates with advanced technologies like Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE). DLE represents a transformative leap over traditional evaporation methods, using sorption and ion exchange to selectively extract lithium ions from brines. The processing time for lithium concentration using DLE ranges from a few hours to a few days[7]. This innovative approach not only improves efficiency but also minimises land use, reduces water consumption, and significantly shortens production timelines, making it a game-changer in sustainable lithium extraction. Moreover, lithium-rich subsurface brines can be produced alongside high-temperature geothermal operations in locations where the necessary conditions are met. The Salton Sea in California exemplifies this dual potential[8], where lithium recovery could be integrated with renewable energy generation, creating an even more sustainable production model. DLE's versatility proves particularly valuable for subsurface brines, where conventional extraction methods face practical constraints. This     technology opens new possibilities for accessing previously untapped resources, potentially reshaping the geographic distribution of lithium production and addressing supply chain vulnerabilities mentioned in our first article.
Image 3 - Direct Lithium Extraction - DLE technology extracts lithium from geothermal brines with minimal environmental impact, high recovery rates (>90%), and rapid production time (2 months), representing a game-changing innovation for the industry.

As the energy transition accelerates, these evolving extraction technologies play a crucial role in meeting growing demand while potentially mitigating environmental impacts. The industry's ability to balance efficiency, sustainability, and scalability through these various methods will largely determine the future of global lithium supply. 

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Notes: 

[1] SGS minerals services – SGS T3 1001, Hard rock lithium processing, 2010

[2] Gruber, P.W., Medina,P.A., Keoleian, G.A., Kesler, S.E., Everson, M.P., and Wallington, T.J., 2011, Global lithium availability—A constraint for electric vehicles?: Journal of Industrial Ecology, v. 15, no. 5, p. 760–775

[3] Kesler, S.E., Gruber,P.W., Medina, P.A., Keoleian, G.A., Everson, M.P., and Wallington, T.J., 2012, Global lithium resources—Relative importance of pegmatite, brine and other deposits:Ore Geology Reviews, v. 48 p. 55–69. (Also available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2012.05.006)

[4] Goldman Sachs, Direct Lithium Extraction: A potential game changing technology, 2023

[5] Vulcan Energy, A growing wave of sustainable lithium supply: Adsorption-type Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE), 2025

[6] Goldman Sachs, Direct Lithium Extraction: A potential game changing technology, 2023

[7] Goldman Sachs, Direct Lithium Extraction: A potential game changing technology, 2023

[8] U.S. Departement of Energy, Interactive: Lithium Storymap

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Thomas Duverney (Ad Terra Consultancy)
Thomas Duverney is a junior geologist at Ad Terra with over five years of academic experience in geology, earth sciences, and environmental studies, complemented by two years in the industry. He holds a Bachelor’s degree from the Université de Genève, during which he spent a year in Québec deepening his focus on mining geology. He later earned his Master’s degree from ETH Zurich, where he specialized in sedimentology, basin analysis, and geochemistry, and carried out his thesis research through fieldwork in British Columbia. As part of his focus on lithium, Thomas has conducted preliminary exploration studies and geological reservoir modelling on lithium brines to pinpoint resource-rich areas. His work also includes evaluating the sources and geological pathways of lithium enrichment, alongside applying petrophysical interpretation to assess reservoir quality.
Bryan Tutty (Ad Terra Consultancy)
Bryan Tutty is the Head of Exploration and Managing Director at Ad Terra Consultancy and Managing Director of LiCan Resources Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of Ad Terra Energy. He has 25 years of international experience in the Petroleum, Lithium, and Helium industries within the functions of M&A, Exploration and Development, and project management of multi-disciplinary technical and commercial studies. Mr Tutty has held technical and managerial positions based in Calgary, Canada and Geneva, Switzerland, and has a proven track record of petroleum exploration success on 3 continents with direct involvement in the drilling of ~1000 development and exploration wells in onshore and offshore settings. He holds a Professional Geoscientist designation with both the Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Alberta and Saskatchewan and graduated with a BSc in Geophysics from the University of Calgary.

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